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Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is
science, engineering, and technology conducted at the Nanoscale,
which is about 1 to 100 Nanometers. Nanoscience and
nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can
be used across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology,
physics, materials science, and engineering.
Although modern nanoscience and
nanotechnology are quite new, nanoscale materials were used for centuries.
Alternate-sized gold and silver particles created colors in the stained glass
windows of medieval churches hundreds of years ago. The artists back then just
didn’t know that the process they used to create these beautiful works of art
actually led to changes in the composition of the materials they were working
with.
Today's scientists and engineers are
finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at the nanoscale
to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter
weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical re-activity than their larger-scale counterparts.
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Grid computing
Grid computing
Grid computing is the federation of
computer resources from multiple locations to reach a common goal. The grid can
be thought of as a distributed system with non-interactive workloads that
involve a large number of files. What distinguishes grid computing from
conventional high performance computing systems such as cluster computing is
that grids tend to be more loosely coupled, heterogeneous, and geographically
dispersed.[1] Although a single grid can be dedicated to a particular
application, commonly a grid is used for a variety of purposes. Grids are often
constructed with general-purpose grid middleware software libraries.
Grid computing appears to be a promising
trend for three reasons: (1) its ability to make more cost-effective use of a
given amount of computer resources, (2) as a way to solve problems that can't
be approached without an enormous amount of computing power, and (3) because it
suggests that the resources of many computers can be cooperatively and perhaps
synergistically harnessed and managed as a collaboration toward a common
objective. In some grid computing systems, the computers may collaborate rather
than being directed by one managing computer. One likely area for the use of
grid computing will be pervasive computing applications - those in which
computers pervade our environment without our necessary awareness.
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Quantum computing
A quantum computer is a computation device
that makes direct use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition
and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum computers are
different from digital computers based on transistors. Whereas digital
computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits), quantum
computation uses quantum properties to represent data and perform operations on
these data.[1] A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as
the universal quantum computer. Quantum computers share theoretical
similarities with non-deterministic and probabilistic computers. One example is
the ability to be in more than one state simultaneously. The field of quantum
computing was first introduced by Yuri Manin in 1980[2] and Richard Feynman in
1981.[3][4] A quantum computer with spins as quantum bits was also formulated
for use as a quantum space-time in 1969.
quantum computers encode information as a
series of quantum-mechanical states such as spin directions of electrons or
polarization orientations of a photon that might represent a 1 or a 0, might
represent a combination of the two or might represent a number expressing that
the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of many
different numbers at once. A quantum computer can do an arbitrary reversible
classical computation on all the numbers simultaneously, which a binary system
cannot do, and also has some ability to produce interference between various
different numbers.
Quantum computing is not well suited for
tasks such as word processing and email, but it is ideal for tasks such as
cryptography and modeling and indexing very large databases.
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Semantic web
The Semantic Web is a collaborative
movement led by the international standards body, the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C).[1] The standard promotes common data formats on the World Wide Web. By
encouraging the inclusion of semantic content in web pages, the Semantic Web
aims at converting the current web dominated by unstructured and
semi-structured documents into a "web of data". The Semantic Web
stack builds on the W3C's Resource Description Framework (RDF).[2]
According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web
provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across
application, enterprise, and community boundaries."
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